methodological issues of confounding in analytical epidemiologic studies

background: confounding can be thought of as mixing the effect of exposure on the risk of disease with a third factor which distorts the measure of association such as risk ratio or odds ratio. this bias arises because of complex functional relationship of confounder with both exposure and disease (outcome). in this article, we provided a conceptual framework review of confounding issues in epidemiologic studies, in particular in observational studies and nonrandomized experimental studies. we have shown in 2 by 2 tables with analytical examples how the index of association will be distorted when confounding is present. the criteria, source of confounding and several points in confounding issues have been addressed. the advantages and disadvantages of several strategies for control of confounding have been discussed.